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On Humans: Daily Summaries Delivered
by Ilari Mäkelä
Where do we come from? How did we get here? And what kinds of creatures are we? On Humans offers conversations with leading scientists, historians, and philosophers, making new research about the human story more accessible to everyone — and more relevant to the big questions about who we are. In addition to regular episodes, the show now includes longer series on some of the greatest arcs in the journey of our species, covering everything from the evolution of apes to the making of the modern economy.
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- 5 days ago1h 5m
What About the Middle East? From Ottoman Might to Western Interventions ~ Şevket Pamuk
The very term “Middle East” evokes ideas of contested borders and chronic conflicts. How did this come to be?The modern Middle East was born in the ruins of the Ottoman Empire, with British and French interventions as its handmaidens. This process was famously explored by David Fromkin in a now-classic book, The Peace to End All Peace, but the explanation leaves the deeper question unaddressed: When, and why, did Western states become more powerful than the once mighty Ottoman Empire? Was this a product of the Industrial Revolution, American colonies, or something else entirely?Şevket Pamuk is the leading economic historian of the Ottoman Empire. A professor at Boğaziçi University, Pamuk has spent several decades measuring various economic indicators from the Ottoman regions, comparing them to developments in Britain, France, and beyond. From wage slips to military logistics, his research offers many exciting clues on “great divergence” between the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe.In this episode, we discuss the lessons that Pamuk’s research has given him, and how all of this helps us understand the Middle East today. What ensues is a sweeping conversation that ranges from the impacts of colonialism to the origins of capitalism and from the rise of modern taxation to the political effects of running an oil economy.Enjoy!You can access a transcript of this conversation at OnHumans.Substack.com. Subscribe to On Humans to stay tuned for a more Iran-focused episode on the Middle East, to be released in late 2026.If you enjoy this, you may also want to check out the show’s existing coverage on the economic origins of the modern world: What About China? with Yasheng HuangWhat About India? with Bishnupriya GuptaThe Birth of Modern Prosperity, with Oded Galor, Brad DeLong, Daron Acemoglu, and Branko MilanovicThe Great Divergence, with Kenneth Pomeranz, Joel Mokyr, Robert Allen, Debin Ma, Bishnupriya Gupta, and Stephen Broadberry.FACT-CHECKINGThis episode has been fact-checked, and no errors have been found. If you find one, please get in touch by commenting on the episode page at OnHumans.Substack.com.LINKSFull show notes with a transcript at OnHumans.Substack.com.Support at Patreon.com/OnHumansMusic credit: Aleksey Chistilin (Lexin_Music) via Pixabay.Get in touch: makela.ilari@outlook.comKEYWORDSNames: Debin Ma | Patrick O’Brien | Joel Mokyr | Robert C. Allen | Kenneth Pomeranz | Brad DeLong | Peter the Great | GutenbergTechnical terms: Great Divergence | GDP per capita | Urban wages | Fiscal centralisation | State capacity | Agrarian empires | Maritime empires | Mercantilism | Political economy | Commercialisation | Bourgeoisie | Institutional change | Atlantic slave trade | Capital-intensive production | Oil curse | | Hegemonic powersThemes: Ottoman Empire | Ottoman Empire economic history | Ottoman decline | Economic history of the Middle East | Great Divergence | Ottoman Empire vs Western Europe | Origins of the Industrial Revolution | Rise of capitalism | European colonialism | history of taxation and military power | State capacity & economic development | Coal and the Industrial Revolution | Oil curse in the Middle East | Economic causes of European dominance | Arab nationalism
- Sep 25, 20261h 17m
How Do Humans Fit into the Story of Life? ~ Jonathan Loh
“What a chimera then is man! What a novelty! What a monster, what a chaos, what a contradiction!” — Blaise PascalNo moment in my teaching career has left a deeper impression on me than a biology class I gave in 2018. The topic was evolution and the tree of life. The pupils were ten-year-olds.“So teacher, are all the animals our cousins?” one student asked. I gave a few qualifications, but then conceded the youthful wisdom.“Yes. And so are all trees and flowers.”The bell rang but many students stayed in the classroom, wanting to hear more about the way we relate to monkeys, dogs, or the silver birches swaying in the schoolyard.I’ve taught the same theme many times since, and while doing so, I have developed a very visceral sense that, as Mary Midgley said, “we humans are not just rather like animals; we are animals.”At the same time, it is obvious that humans are a peculiar species, perhaps the most peculiar one alive. We speak in tongues, we travel to space, we wreck ecosystems.So how do we fit into the story of life?Jonathan Loh’s new book, Life Story, offered me a fresh way to think about this.Loh is a biologist, author, and an honorary fellow at the University of Sussex. His book is thoroughly biological, but it also takes human peculiarity seriously. In fact, Loh suggests that humans are extraordinarily weird precisely because we are the first life form to have copied many of the foundational tricks that life itself once developed. That central idea takes us from the origins of life and the great transitions of biological evolution all the way to agriculture, cities, and the technological world we inhabit today. We end with reflections on climate change, AI, and Alan Turing’s prophetic-sounding claim that our machines are “only a foretaste of what is to come, and only the shadow of what is going to be.”Enjoy!FACT-CHECKINGNo factual errors have been detected yet. If you find a factual error, please leave a comment in the extended show notes (link below).LINKSFull show notes with references available around an hour after publication at Substack.OnHumans.comSupport at Patreon.com/OnHumansKEYWORDSNamesLynn Margulis | Adam Smith | John Maynard Smith | Eörs Szathmáry | Eva Jablonka Technical terms Proto-Indo-European | LUCA (Last Universal Common Ancestor) | hydrothermal vents | cyanobacteria | anoxygenic photosynthesis | oxygenic photosynthesis | Great Oxidation Event | banded iron formations | Snowball Earth | prokaryotes | eukaryotes | endosymbiosis | mitochondria | ATP | plastids | chloroplasts | Fertile Crescent | Uruk | Mesopotamia | The Major Transitions in Evolution | Kōjima macaques | Imo | Cambrian Explosion | Tiktaalik | Cretaceous mass extinction | Homo erectus | Homo sapiens | Australopithecus | Anthropic | Claude | IPCC | HoloceneTopics coveredhuman evolution | history of life | evolution of life | human origins | deep time | evolution explained | DNA | genetic code | evolution of language | animal cultures | evolution of intelligence | evolution of consciousness | photosynthesis | Great Oxidation Event | mitochondria | endosymbiosis | multicellular life | Cambrian Explosion | cultural evolution | social evolution | hunter-gatherers | origins of agriculture | domestication | origins of civilisation | origins of cities | origins of states | rise of complex societies | evolution of land animals | Tiktaalik | biodiversity | climate change | artificial intelligence | AI | future of humanity | technological evolution Music credit: Aleksey Chistilin (Lexin_Music) via Pixabay.Get in touch: makela.ilari@outlook.com
- Aug 24, 20261h 2m
Beyond Paleo: A Culinary History of Humanity ~ Daniel Lieberman
“What do you think of the paleo diet?” To my surprise, this has become the most common question I get after telling people that I cover human evolution. I’ve long struggled to answer. Yes, the idea makes a lot of sense: humans evolved as hunter-gatherers, so our bodies should do well when we eat like hunter-gatherers.But what exactly do hunter-gatherers eat? Harvard professor Daniel Lieberman wanted to find out. After reviewing the evidence we have on the diets of hunter-gatherers, he came to a surprising conclusion.“Not a single one of them eats the paleo diet”, he says. Some hunter-gatherers eat more meat than the paleo diet prescribes; most eat much less. Plenty of them eat legumes and cereals, both of which are banned by paleo cookbooks.“There is no one paleo diet,” Lieberman concludes. “The unique thing about humans is that we evolved to eat almost everything.” Instead of fixating on a single “true” diet, Lieberman’s new book, Fed Up, offers a tour of the dietary history of humanity, discussing what lessons we can learn along the way. In this episode, we cover the sweeping story of food and cooking, from the first chefs who processed food with stone tools to the explosion of ultra-processed foods during Lieberman’s own lifetime. Along the way, Lieberman offers insightful comparisons between humans and chimpanzees and discusses the many ways in which farming has — and has not — affected the human condition. He also explains why humans have always been “a very fat ape”, and what his experience of racing against horses tells us about the quirks of human evolution.Towards the end of the episode, we also evaluate the pros and the cons of the modern food system. We finish with Lieberman’s deeply compassionate advice to all who would like to find a healthier lifestyle amidst the many challenges of industrial modernity. Enjoy!FACT-CHECKINGNo factual errors have been detected yet. If you find a factual error, please leave a comment in the extended show notes (link below)LINKSFull show notes (uploaded within one hour): OnHumans.Substack.comSupport: Patreon.com/OnHumansKEYWORDSEthnic groups & technical terms The Hadza | Inuit | Agta | Homo erectus | Australopithecines | Lucy | Olduvai Hominid OH 8 | Oldowan stone tools | the Nandi Hills Topics coveredHuman evolution | evolutionary anthropology | human origins | big history | palaeoanthropology | paleo diet | hunter-gatherer studies | meat eating | persistence hunting | endurance running | sweating | human body fat | origins of cooking | origins of food processing | agriculture | neolithic revolution | peasant diets | famines | infectious disease | Mediterranean diet | ultra-processed foods | fibre | saturated and unsaturated fats | obesity | insulin resistance | type 2 diabetes | GLUT4 transporters | exercise | weight maintenance | Music credit: Aleksey Chistilin (Lexin_Music) via Pixabay.
- Jul 25, 202647 min
When Did Globalisation Really Begin? ~ Valerie Hansen
We can decide to stay home, but even then, the wider world is always close to our skin. From global trade to ideas that travel across continents, the wider world is always woven into our modern life.Since when has this been the case?There is a modern story about globalisation — a story about telecommunications and aeroplanes and such — but this is the climax of a long process, not its beginning. To find the deeper roots of globalisation, we should turn our gaze to the medieval world, and specifically to events around the year 1000.Or so argues historian Valerie Hansen.In this episode, we discuss the various curious developments around the year 1000 that began to connect the world into an interconnected web. From Viking explorers to the Silk Roads in Africa, Hansen offers many fascinating windows into the surprising connections that were already beginning to link the medieval world together. We also discuss the spread of inventions and world religions, as well as the deeper forces that Hansen thinks have long been driving world history.Enjoy!FACT-CHECKINGNo errors have been detected in this conversation. If you notice one, please get in touch via Substack or the form below.LINKSHansen's books: The Silk Road: A New History and The Year 1000.Support: Patreon.com/OnHumansArticles & newsletter: OnHumans.Substack.comGet in touch: https://forms.gle/h5wcmefuwvD6asos8Music credit: Aleksey Chistilin (Lexin_Music) via Pixabay.MENTIONSNames: Erik the Red | Bjarni Herjólfsson | Jacques Cartier | Vladimir the Great | Mansa Musa | William Dalrymple | Kenneth Pomeranz | Andrés Moreno-Estrada | Michael Coe | Mary Miller | Ralph Austen | Richard Davis | Paul Freedman | Thor HeyerdahlHistorical places: L’Anse aux Meadows | Greenland | Newfoundland | Chichén Itzá | the Yucatán Peninsula | the Baltic Sea | the Song dynasty | the Liao dynasty | the Abbasid Caliphate | Baghdad | the Indian Ocean | the Swahili Coast | Mali | Kaifeng | Hagia SophiaKEYWORDSglobal history | macrohistory | economic history | medieval history | early global trade | long-distance trade | Silk Roads | Indian Ocean trade | trans-Saharan trade | maritime trade networks | Viking / Norse exploration | Polynesian migrations | population genetics | pre-Columbian contact | Viking–Maya contact hypothesis | Polynesian–Native American contact hypothesis | Song dynasty | Liao dynasty | Abbasid Caliphate | medieval Africa | Swahili Coast trade | medieval slavery | trans-Saharan slave trade | slavery and serfdom | slavery in China | spread of world religions | Christianisation of Europe | spread of Islam | Buddhism in Asia | diffusion of technology | history of inventions | paper, printing, gunpowder and the compass | Indian numerals and zero | Maya mathematics | history of food
- Jun 21, 202641 min
The Why of War and the How of Peace, Part II: Lessons from Prehistory ~ Douglas P. Fry
How old is war? Does it stretch deep into human origins, or did warfare become common only as growing populations settled down? In Part II of this conversation with Douglas P. Fry, we return to the long-running debate about the origins of war. Fry revisits his argument that aggression is ancient, but war is not. I put that claim to the test, raising some of the strongest objections from archaeology and the study of modern hunter-gatherers. We discuss Jebel Sahaba, nomadic and settled foragers, food storage, marine resources, population growth, and the archaeological sequences through which warfare seems to emerge in different parts of the world.Is war an ancient adaptation—or a more recent cultural development? And is the answer relevant to our modern quest for a more peaceful world?Enjoy!FACT-CHECKINGNo errors have been detected in this conversation. If you notice one, please get in touch via Substack or the form below.LINKSFry's 2026 book: Advanced Introduction to Conflict ResolutionSupport: Patreon.com/OnHumansArticles & newsletter: OnHumans.Substack.comGet in touch: https://forms.gle/h5wcmefuwvD6asos8Music credit: Aleksey Chistilin (Lexin_Music) via Pixabay.NAMES MENTIONEDDouglas P. Fry | Luke Glowacki | Richard Wrangham | Brian Ferguson | Christopher Boehm | Richard B. Lee | Donald E. BrownETHNIC GROUPS AND HISTORICAL REGIONSNorthwestern Alaska | Valley of Oaxaca | Jebel Sahaba | Monte Albán | Zapotec Empire | Calusa people | Batek people | Orang Asli | Juǀ’hoansi, !Kung | Mbuti KEY WORDSOrigins of war | prehistory of war | history of warfare | causes of war | why humans go to war | anthropology of war | anthropology of peace | peace studies | conflict studies | war studies | peace and conflict studies | evolutionary anthropology | human evolution | human nature and war | hunter-gatherer warfare | hunter-gatherers | nomadic hunter-gatherers | mobile foragers | complex hunter-gatherers | prehistoric violence | interpersonal violence | coalitionary aggression | coalitionary killing | lethal aggression | human aggression | conflict resolution | restraint of aggression | archaeological evidence of war | archaeology of warfare | archaeological record | Pleistocene | Holocene | Neolithic warfare | origins of social complexity | sedentism | permanent settlements | food storage | population growth | population density | resource competition | resource intensification | marine resources | aquatic resources | Neolithic revolution | human universals | evolutionary psychology | chimpanzee warfare
- Jun 19, 202647 min
The Why of War and the How of Peace, Part I: Lessons from the Modern World ~ Douglas P. Fry
History is full of wars. Why? Is war driven by fear? Greed? Revenge? Ambitious leaders? Is it rooted deep in human nature—or does it emerge only under particular social conditions? And what do we learn if we change the angle from wars to non-wars? What lessons emerge from a study of all the periods and regions where war did not take place? My guest in this two-part mini-series is Douglas P. Fry, an anthropologist who has spent decades studying these questions. He is also a returning guest, and one of the first scholars ever to appear on this podcast.In Part II of our conversation, we will return to the topic of our episode from years back: the origins of war in prehistory. In this first part, however, we take a very different approach. We discuss lessons from modernity, with our topics ranging from the quest for peace after WWII to the societies in the Brazilian Amazon and Indigenous North America.What makes former enemies trust one another? What roles are played by equality, trade, or a new shared enemy? And how can cycles of fear, retaliation, and revenge be reversed without simply surrendering to aggression?At a time when war once again dominates the news, these questions could hardly be more urgent. But they also point towards a part of the human story that is too easily forgotten: our capacity not only to make war, but to understand it—and to build peace that lasts.Enjoy!FACT-CHECKINGMy wording on Ukraine giving up its nuclear arsenal in exchange for "security guarantees" is slightly stronger than the formal language of the Budapest Memorandum, which talked of “security assurances” rather than legally binding security guarantees.If you notice a factual error in this conversation, please get in touch via Substack or the form below. LINKSFry's 2026 book: Advanced Introduction to Conflict ResolutionSupport: Patreon.com/OnHumansArticles & newsletter: OnHumans.Substack.comGet in touch: https://forms.gle/h5wcmefuwvD6asos8Music credit: Aleksey Chistilin (Lexin_Music) via Pixabay.NAMES MENTIONEDDouglas P. Fry | Geneviève Souillac | Jean Monnet | Konrad Adenauer | Mahatma Gandhi | Edward Westermarck | Charles E. Osgood | Brian Ferguson | Eleanor Roosevelt | Vladimir Putin KEY WORDSDouglas P. Fry | peace studies | conflict studies | war studies | peace and conflict studies | anthropology of war | anthropology of peace | war and peace | causes of war | origins of war | human nature and war | peacebuilding | conflict resolution | peace systems | lasting peace | international cooperation | nonviolence | revenge | reciprocity | negative reciprocity | deterrence | security dilemma | arms race | nuclear weapons | nuclear disarmament | Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons | TPNW | Budapest Memorandum | United Nations | UN peacekeeping | Blue Helmets | UN Security Council | international law | global governance | World War II | Second World War | post-war peace | European integration | Jean Monnet | European Coal and Steel Community | Switzerland | Nordic peace | Åland Islands dispute | League of Nations | Upper Xingu peace system | Indigenous peace systems | Haudenosaunee Confederacy | Iroquois Confederacy | Great League of Peace | GRIT strategy | Graduated Reciprocation in Tension Reduction | Charles E. Osgood | Edward Westermarck | Ukraine war | Russia–Ukraine war
- May 14, 202646 min
The Big Picture: Measuring the Origins of the Modern World ~ Bishnupriya Gupta & Stephen Broadberry
Was India once an affluent empire, later impoverished by British colonisation? Or was India never rich to begin with? More generally, what does historical data on wages and other economic indicators tell us about the broader story of the making of the modern world – a world with great affluence, but where much of the riches are still concentrated in the Western world.For over 20 years now, Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta have worked to measure the evolution of global living standards from the medieval period onwards. In this episode, they begin by discussing a comparison between the historical economies of India and Britain. We then continue to a broader story of the living standards of the pre-industrial world. We also discuss different theories of the “Great Divergence” between the West and the rest of the world. We finish by turning our attention to the future, asking if the 21st century will be remembered as the Asian century.This episode concludes the five-part series on the making of the modern world, produced by CAGE Research Centre and On Humans. LINKS AND REFERENCESDo you prefer reading to listening? You can find a summarised essay of this conversation, with a bibliography, at our series page: https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/centres/cage/news/podcasts/ NAMES MENTIONEDKenneth Pomeranz | Angus Maddison | Daron Acemoglu | James Robinson | Nico Voigtländer | Hans-Joachim Voth | Debin Ma | Robert Allen | Joel Mokyr KEYWORDSEconomics | History | Global Economic History | Industrial Revolution | Indian history | Imperial history | East India Company | Emperor Akbar | Colonisation | Historical GDP estimates | Historical living standard estimates | Wage history | History of labour | Social history | Comparative development | State capacity | Malthusian trap | History of Technology INFOGuests: Bishnupriya Gupta (University of Warwick) and Stephen Broadberry (University of Oxford) Contact: greatdivergencepod@gmail.com
- May 7, 202646 min
A View From the East: China, Japan, and the Other Paths to Prosperity ~ Debin Ma
The tech gap between China and the West is closing fast. But why did the land that invented paper and gunpowder ever fall behind? Debin Ma is the world’s leading economic historian of East Asia. In this fourth episode of our Great Divergence series, he approaches the making of the modern world from an eastern perspective. We discuss why China fell behind, why Japan modernised early, and why East Asia has experienced so many economic miracles. We also discuss China’s recent transformation – a transformation that Ma has witnessed firsthand. LINKS AND REFERENCESDo you prefer reading to listening? You can find a summarised essay of this conversation, with a bibliography, at our series page: https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/centres/cage/news/podcasts/GREAT DIVERGENCE: THE MAKING OF THE MODERN WORLDThis episode is part of a series produced by Warwick University’s CAGE Research Centre in collaboration with On Humans, searching for explanations to why Western Europe and North America emerged as the most affluent and technologically advanced regions of the modern world. Guided by six expert guests, including a winner of the 2025 Nobel Prize in economics, we approach this topic with balance and breadth, exploring everything from colonialism and fossil fuels to science and technology. 1 | Why the West? Colonies, fossil fuels, and lessons from China (Kenneth Pomeranz)2 | Why did so many inventions come from Europe? (Joel Mokyr)3 | Why did the Industrial Revolution happen in Britain? (Robert Allen) 4 | A view from the East: China, Japan, and the other paths to prosperity (Debin Ma)5 | The big picture: Measuring the origins of the modern world (Bishnupriya Gupta and Stephen Broadberry)NAMES MENTIONEDJoseph Needham | Kenneth Pomeranz | Joel Mokyr | Robert Allen | Francis Fukuyama | Jared Rubin | Yin Weiwen | Kaiser Kuo | Deng Xiaoping | Yasheng Huang KEYWORDSEconomics | History | Global Economic History | Industrial Revolution | Chinese history | Japanese history | Developmental Economics | Needham Puzzle | Needham Question | Qianlong Emperor | Macartney embassy | Meiji Japan | Iwakura mission | Age heaping | Comparative development | State capacity | Modern fiscal state | History of taxation | Industrial Policy | History of Technology | Human capitalINFOGuest: Debin Ma (Fudan University and All Souls College, University of Oxford) Host: Ilari Mäkelä (On Humans)Contact: greatdivergencepod@gmail.com
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About On Humans
Where do we come from? How did we get here? And what kinds of creatures are we? On Humans offers conversations with leading scientists, historians, and philosophers, making new research about the human story more accessible to everyone — and more relevant to the big questions about who we are. In addition to regular episodes, the show now includes longer series on some of the greatest arcs in the journey of our species, covering everything from the evolution of apes to the making of the modern economy.
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